Wearable Sensors

Recent advancements in wearable data measurement technologies have allowed for real-time collection of biosignals related to spinal function and back pain. These data also have the potential to completely transform back pain treatment paradigms, to improve diagnostic movement phenotyping and to track treatment effectiveness longitudinally.

The growing number of wearable sensor types, combined with real-time interpretation using machine-learning algorithms, is paving the way for objective and comprehensive evaluations of spinal movements that can guide both research and clinical practice.

Our lab has developed high-deflection strain gauge sensors, which are an inexpensive, noninvasive means of measuring motion of key body structures (e.g. the lumbar spine, throat, knee, etc.).

Ryan JJ, Bowden EE, Hancock MM, Power K, Edwards NW, White E, Fullwood DT, Mitchell UH, Bowden JA, Bowden AE (2025) “Wearable Sensor Technologies for Individuals with Back Pain: A Scoping Review,” Pain Management, 15(11):855-876, https://doi.org/10.1080/17581869.2025.2561394.

Wonnacott AM, Bowden AE, Mitchell UH, Fullwood DT (2024), “Analyzing and Modeling the Dynamic Electrical Characteristics of Nanocomposite Large-Range Strain Gauges,” Sensors, 24(24):8192, https://doi.org/10.3390/s24248192.

Baker SA, Billmire DA, Bilodeau RA, Emmett D, Gibbons AK, Mitchell UH, Bowden AE, Fullwood DT (2023), “Wearable nanocomposite sensor system for motion phenotyping chronic low back pain: a BACPAC Technology Research Site,” Pain Medicine, 24(Supp 1):pnad017, https://doi.org/10.1093/pm/pnad017.

Hanson RA, Newton CN, Merrell AJ, Bowden AE, Seeley MK, Mitchell UH, Mazzeo BA, Fullwood DT (2023), “Dual-sensing Piezoresponsive Foam for Dynamic and Static Loading,” Sensors, 23(7):3719, https://doi.org/10.3390/s23073719.

Wood DS, Jensen K, Crane A, Lee H, Dennis H, Gladwell J, Shurtz A, Fullwood DT, Seeley MK, Mitchell UH, Christensen WF, Bowden AE (2022), “Accurate prediction of knee angles during openchain rehabilitation exercises using a wearable array of nanocomposite stretch sensors,” Sensors, doi: 10.3390/s22072499, 22(7):2499.

Evans, A., Collins, G., Rosquist, P., Tuttle, N., Morrin, S.J., Tracy, J., Merrell, A.J., Christensen, W.F., Fullwood, D.T., Bowden, A.E., & Seeley, M.K. (2018), “Predicting energy expenditure during walking and running using novel piezoelectric foam sensors.” Journal for the Measurement of Physical Behavior, Journal for the Measurement of Physical Behavior, https://doi.org/10.1123/jmpb.2018-0008, 1(3):100-107.

Merrell AJ, Christensen WF, Seeley MK, Bowden AE, Fullwood DT (2017), “Nano-Composite Foam Sensor System in Football Helmets,” Annals of Biomedical Engineering, doi:10.1007/s10439-017-1910-9, 45(12):2742-2749.